Over the past 50 years, climate events and natural hazards have caused 3.7 million deaths, affected 8 billion people, and caused $3.6 trillion USD in damages (Rana et al., 2023). In recent years, Canada has faced an alarming increase in the frequency and severity of natural disasters, driven by factors such as environmental degradation, urbanization, and climate change (Norman, 2023). Expected climate change involves more than just shifts in global average temperatures; it also involves increased frequency and severity of extreme weather and climate events (Scott & Lennon, 2020). For example, warmer ocean temperatures contribute to increased intensity of storms, leading to coastal erosion, infrastructure damage, power outages, and disrupted local economies. The Atlantic coast, especially Nova Scotia and Newfoundland, have been hit by stronger hurricanes. Wildfires have become more prevalent and intense, particularly in British Columbia and Alberta. Severe flooding events, including riverine and flash floods, have become more severe across Canada, affecting areas such as Ontario, Quebec, and the Prairies. In northern Canada, the thawing of permafrost due to rising temperatures is damaging infrastructure and disrupting ecosystems and Indigenous ways of life. This geographical shift in disaster risks with extended seasons of vulnerability underscores the urgent need for effective emergency preparedness and resilience building. Resilience refers to the ability to swiftly recover or adapt to misfortune or change (Demchak et al., 2022). Enhancing community resilience involves essential elements including strong governance, financial capital, sustainable urban development, ecosystem buffers, institutional capacity, societal capacity, high-quality infrastructure, and effective disaster response, recovery, and scenario planning (Demchak et al., 2022). As communities and organizations strive to enhance their preparedness, it is essential to leverage social, economic, and environmental resilience indicators while fostering sustainable practices. This comprehensive approach, aligned with international agreements and local conservation efforts, is crucial for safeguarding Canada’s future against the escalating threat of natural disasters.
Natural disasters pose significant environmental, economic, and health challenges. They destroy ecosystems, cause biodiversity loss, increase carbon emissions, and degrade soil. Soil degradation reduces the fertility of the land and hinders agricultural productivity. Economically, natural disasters disrupt business and food supply chains, increase insurance costs, and damage property. Health impacts extend beyond the physical domain and include trauma related to evacuation and property loss, which can lead to chronic mental health issues. Moreover, mass evacuations to displace impacted communities can lead to long-term housing shortages and social instability. Measuring vulnerability and natural disaster risk through the National Risk Index created by the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) in the United States, includes the assessment of 18 natural hazards (i.e., environmental phenomena): avalanche, tsunami, coastal flooding, riverine flooding, landslide, earthquake, cold wave, heat wave, wildfire, drought, hurricane, tornado, strong wind, lightning, hail, ice storm, winter weather, and volcanic activity (FEMA, 2023). These natural hazards have the potential to negatively impact an area and are considered to be a natural disaster after the actual occurrence of the hazard significantly harming a community (FEMA, 2023).
This essay explores several critical research questions related to Canadian natural disasters, particularly due to extreme heat, catastrophic wildfires, and intense flooding. Firstly, what are key factors influencing the preparedness and effectiveness of relief responses to natural disasters in Canada? How do the philosophical differences between retreating and relocating communities versus protecting and fortifying communities influence policy-making and resiliency strategies? The role of community-based conservation projects in facilitating social mobilization for environmental stewardship is also assessed, identifying the factors that contribute to the success of these initiatives in promoting sustainable conservation practices and community engagement. Finally, essential strategies and interventions for building sustainable futures in the face of natural disasters are explored, emphasizing the need for forward-thinking approaches to disaster preparedness and resilience.
Natural Disaster Preparedness and Relief
Natural disaster emergency preparedness and relief are vital for reducing harm, protecting property, ensuring economic stability, building resilience, limiting injuries, and minimizing loss of life. Preparation can save lives by ensuring the individuals know what to do before, during, and after a natural disaster. This includes having evacuation plans, emergency kits, and knowledge of safe places to seek shelter. Community resiliency has psychological benefits since understanding plans and knowing resources are in place provide a sense of security and readiness. Well-established social networks are more effective at recovering from natural disasters because they support the translation of knowledge and ensure people are ready to act. Planning should consider how to minimize economic impacts of natural disasters and promote recovery of operations; protecting businesses, infrastructure, and livelihoods helps ensure a quicker return to baseline economic activities.
Resiliency involves the ability to cope, adapt, learn, and transform to effectively respond or reorganize in ways that preserve core functions, identities, structures, and biodiversity (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [IPCC], 2022a, p. 10). According to the University of South Carolina’s Hazards and Vulnerability Research Institute, social resilience (e.g., population demographics and vehicle ownership), economic resilience (i.e., labour force employment rate and ratio of large to small businesses), institutional resilience (i.e., mitigation spending), infrastructural resilience (e.g., housing and hospital bed availability), environmental resilience (e.g., Megawatt hours per energy customer and water supply stress index), and community capital resilience (e.g., Red Cross volunteer density) are the baseline resilience indicators for a community (Demchak et al., 2022). Humanitarian organizations, such as the Red Cross, enhance community resiliency by updating and digitizing local maps with recent disasters and risk management data, conducting surveys, and monitoring changes (Liu et al., 2018).
Resource management is an important aspect of enhancing the speed and effectiveness of the response. Emergency services, resources, and personnel should be ready to respond quickly and effectively, therefore having clear communication plans, trained responders, and pre-positioned supplies are necessary. Early warning systems are crucial for natural disaster preparedness, providing essential time for evacuation or seeking shelter, thereby significantly reducing casualties. The challenge lies in leveraging technology to ensure these systems are accessible to all population segments. Advancements in technology and data analytics can facilitate rapid information dissemination and resource allocation during emergencies.
FEMA’s National Risk Index calculates the annual expected loss using exposure, frequency, and historical loss ratios for natural disasters, quantifying losses for buildings, people, and agriculture (Demchak et al., 2022). Social vulnerability measures the susceptibility of social groups to natural hazards, including death, injury, and livelihood disruption (Demchak et al., 2022). This information is useful for policy development to prevent new builds in hazard-prone zones such as regions with extreme heat, wildfires, sea level rise, and excessive rainfall (Norman, 2023).
Scenario Planning
Scenario planning is a valuable tool in various fields such as national security, defence, insurance, and strategic planning. With respect to natural disaster preparedness, scenario planning can be used to assess risk following the Canadian Planning Institute’s (CPI) guidelines for climate change. These guidelines emphasize integrating mitigation, adaptation, and disaster risk reduction in all regional and local planning and design (CPI, 2018, pp. 3-4). Moreover, the CPI (2018, pp. 3-4) recommends communities develop multimodal transport systems, incorporating infrastructure for active transportation, public transit, and zero emissions vehicular technologies to enhance resilience and reduce environmental impact.
Scenario planning must consider the potential for simultaneous crises. For example, a hurricane during a pandemic requires managing quarantining and sheltering together (Shein, 2021). The COVID-19 pandemic highlighted challenges including workforce shortages, delays in supplies, funding deficits, and inadequate hospital capacity (Shein, 2021). Preparing for catastrophic events, even if unlikely, help ensure readiness for any scenario (Shein, 2021).
Under a moderate warming scenario of 2 degrees Celsius, sea levels could significantly threaten land inhabited by 150 million people by 2050, potentially submerging areas permanently (Kulp & Strauss, 2019). By 2100, up to 360 million people could be at risk of annual flooding events globally, particularly in Asia, with this number increasing dramatically to 630 million under a high emissions scenario (Kulp & Strauss, 2019).
Leaders should identify and rank immediate needs, focus on the top five priorities to manage the situation, and allocate resources accordingly (Shein, 2021). Crisis management should aim to maintain usual operational structures and avoid the reorganization of responsibilities to enhance efficiency and effectiveness (Shein, 2021).
Community Perceptions and Citizen Preparedness
Community actions on climate change are closely linked to their perceptions and understanding of the issue (Rana et al., 2023). Psychological distance, the gap between self-perception and actual events, significantly influences an individual’s readiness to adapt to climate change (Rana et al., 2023). Direct experience with climate-related events increases concern and action, while psychological distance is a barrier to community engagement (Rana et al., 2023). Reducing this distance through improved communication can foster positive attitudes and behaviours towards climate change (Rana et al., 2023).
Research in the United States and Serbia indicates significant socioeconomic disparities in disaster preparedness and response. Higher-income households and employed individuals were found to be more confident in their ability to cope with disaster consequences and more proactive in their disaster preparedness efforts, which was attributed to greater resources and workplace education (Cvetkovic, 2016; FEMA, 2009). On the contrary, lower-income and unemployed individuals tend to rely more heavily on emergency services and competent authorities for help with evacuation and shelter during natural disasters (FEMA, 2009). In the Serbian study, awareness of flood risks and familiarity with evacuation routes and risk assessments were lower among lower-income groups (Cvetkovic, 2016). Commonly stated reasons for not taking preventative measures included lack of time, cost concerns, reliance on first responders, and perceived lack of community support (Cvetkovic, 2016). There is a need for better information dissemination about evacuation routes and nearby shelters, particularly for low-income individuals (Cvetkovic, 2016). Moreover, citizens should be encouraged to acquire essential supplies (e.g., food, flashlight, hack, firefighting apparatus, and first aid kit) and discuss response strategies within their households (Cvetkovic, 2016). These studies highlight significant differences in preparedness and response to natural disasters correlating with socioeconomic status, which emphasizes the need for targeted interventions. Increasing public awareness about natural disaster risks and promoting proactive measures such as evacuation drills and emergency kits, empower individuals to take preventative actions and enhance citizen preparedness.
Canadian Context of Natural Hazards
Effective natural disaster emergency preparedness and relief in Canada requires social mobilization for environmental protection, community-based conservation efforts, and sustainable future building. Canada supports international agreements including the Paris Climate Agreement, the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (UN SDGs), and the New Urban Agenda (Norman, 2023). Moreover, Canada is committed to reaching global net zero emissions by mid-century and limiting the global temperature increase by 1.5 degrees Celsius (Norman, 2023). This requires Canada to set ambitious emissions reduction targets for 2030 such as accelerating the phase-out of coal, curtailing deforestation, promoting electric vehicle adoption, and incentivizing renewable energy investments (Norman, 2023).
The Canadian Sustainable Development Strategy for 2022 to 2026, guided by the Federal Sustainable Development Act and the UN SDGs, emphasizes intergenerational equity, transparency, collaboration, and Indigenous Peoples’ involvement (Canadian Government, 2022, pp. 17-18). This strategy aims to integrate environmental, economic, and social factors in decision-making and views sustainable development as the efficient use of natural, social, and economic resources. By 2030, Canada aims to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 40-45% below 2005 levels and reverse nature loss in the country (Canadian Government, 2022, pp. 17-18). Strengthening disaster preparedness policies and governance structures at various levels can enhance coordination and response to natural disasters. Climate change exacerbates hazards such as heat waves, wildfires, and floods, necessitating comprehensive and proactive disaster management strategies (Norman, 2023).
Extreme Heat
Extreme heat is often described as the “silent killer” because prolonged exposure can lead to fatalities, particularly among young and elderly populations who are vulnerable due to struggles with internal body temperature regulation (Norman, 2023). Exposure to heat poses significant risks to human life, especially in urban areas where there are “heat islands” (Norman, 2023). Urban planning and design strategies focusing on biophilic principles, landscape architecture, and the integration of green infrastructure are useful to address urban heat islands (Norman, 2023). The combination of extreme heat and drought conditions has significant implications for both human life and the environment; globally, millions of people are expected to relocate according to climate migration projections (Norman, 2023). While this trend is largely irreversible, Norman (2023) explains that proactive climate-responsive planning and design can help mitigate these effects.
Heat-related illnesses range from heat cramps to potentially fatal heat strokes (World Health Organization, 2009). Heat waves, defined as prolonged periods of excessively hot weather (i.e., temperature threshold of 30-36 degrees Celsius, taking into account acclimatization and the area’s latitude), significantly increase mortality rates, with elderly populations at higher risk (Okwuofu-Thomas et al., 2017). In particular, those in aged care facilities are most vulnerable due to factors affecting thermoregulations such as reduced perspiration, medications, reduced plasma volume, cardiac output and other health conditions like diabetes or dehydration (World Health Organization, 2009). Media outlets and health departments play crucial roles in issuing heat warnings and disseminating information (Okwuofu-Thomas et al., 2017).
Effective heat wave response plans include heat stress prevention strategies such as wearing appropriate clothing, ensuring access to cooling areas, recognizing heat stress symptoms, avoiding direct sun exposure, minimizing physical exertion, and staying hydrated (Okwuofu-Thomas et al., 2017). Toronto’s heat wave response plan lacks information on wearing loose, light-coloured clothing and minimizing physical activity while Vancouver’s plan omits advice on staying out of the sun and wearing appropriate clothing (Okwuofu-Thomas et al., 2017). However, Canada’s national plan includes all 13 recommended heat stress prevention strategies outline in Health Canada’s Extreme Events Guidelines, and is notably comprehensive in targeting healthcare providers, retirement homes, and emergency services (Okwuofu-Thomas et al., 2017).
Climate change is expected to increase the frequency and duration of heat waves in the decades to come (Okwuofu-Thomas et al., 2017). Decreased precipitation and higher temperatures leading to droughts, increasingly common in regions like the Prairies, reduce water supply and agricultural productivity, further stressing the environment and economy while raising wildfire risks.
Catastrophic Wildfires
Catastrophic wildfires cause extensive damage to properties, infrastructure, fauna, and forests (Norman, 2023). Dry conditions and hotter temperatures have notably intensified the frequency and severity of wildfires over the past decade in various regions (Scott & Lennon, 2020). For example, the 2016 wildfire in Fort McMurray, Alberta had an immense economic and social impact, with substantial costs and widespread evacuation (Bodin et al., 2022). This fire burned an area of 589,552 hectares, destroyed 2,400 buildings, and resulted in the evacuation of 88,000 people, with direct and indirect costs estimated at approximately $7.56 billion USD (Bodin et al., 2022). Wildfires devastate large areas of land, often destroying the seeds beneath the ground due to intense heat, which hinders the land’s ability to recover (Norman, 2023). Wildfire smoke and air pollution pose significant health risks especially to respiratory and cardiovascular systems (Norman, 2023).
Extended fire risk periods beyond traditional summer months add strain on firefighting resources (Norman, 2023). Transforming volunteer fire brigades into ecologically focused wildfire management teams that work closely with residents, businesses, and Indigenous knowledge holders can help build community resilience while tackling the threat of catastrophic wildfires (Norman, 2023). These teams can focus on adaptive and regenerative strategies, foster community engagement, and address the challenges posed by wildfires (Norman, 2023). Tasks involved in wildfire response include evacuation, situational awareness, public communication, logistics, supply, risk assessment, information dissemination, media relations, intra-organizational and inter-organizational relations, and self-help (Bodin et al., 2022). Similar to Sweden’s wildfire response, Canada uses a network-based approach with clearly defined responsibilities and interdependent task management (Bodin et al., 2022). Task interdependency refers to efforts that address one task rely on resources or actions necessary to handle other tasks simultaneously or sequentially (Bodin et al., 2022). The increasing frequency and severity of wildfires demand integrated strategies that address multiple interconnected challenges simultaneously (Scott & Lennon, 2020).
Intense Flooding and Coastal Inundation
Throughout the 21st century, coastal areas will experience more frequent and severe flooding and erosion in low-lying regions (IPCC, 2021b). Extreme sea level events, which previously occurred once in 100 years, are now projected to occur annually by the end of this century (IPCC, 2021b). Unfortunately, unavoidable sea level rise will have significant negative impacts on settlements, food and water security, livelihoods, and health due to flooding, groundwater salinization, loss of coastal ecosystems, and damaged coastal infrastructure (IPCC, 2022, p. 19). For example, washed out or damaged roads, bridges, and utilities will disrupt transportation networks and essential services. Increased rainfall, rapid snowmelt, and urbanization exacerbate flooding risks, leading to erosion, sedimentation, habitat destruction and water contamination (Norman, 2023). Moreover, contaminated waters can spread waterborne diseases such as cholera, typhoid, and hepatitis.
Climate change is increasing extreme rainfall events, heightening the risk of landslides. Researchers found that Colombian municipalities at medium or high risk for landslides were more likely to invest in preventative measures following a year with higher than typical rainfall (Ayala-Garcia & Dall’Erba, 2021). Examples of pre-emptive measures include early alerts systems, resilient infrastructure, deforestation control, and relocating people from high-risk areas (Ayala-Garcia & Dall’Erba, 2021). This study found that proactive public investment reduced the occurrence of landslides, casualties, injuries, missing persons, and the number of people affected (Ayala-Garcia & Dall’Erba, 2021). However, it did not impact the number of houses destroyed (Ayala-Garcia & Dall’Erba, 2021). Solutions for managing flood risk include elevation, levees, man-made protections, and relocation (IPCC, 2022a). Kelan (2020) argues that natural events, including hazardous conditions and severe weather, escalating to the state of a disaster are largely preventable. One suggestion is effective land use policies such as creating parks instead of housing in flood-prone areas as this reduces property damage and provides recreational spaces (Kelan, 2020). Responses need to be planned well in advance and be in alignment with sociocultural values identified through inclusive community engagement (IPCC, 2022a).
Philosophical Differences Between Relocating Versus Protecting Communities
The debate between retreat (i.e., relocating communities) and resistance (i.e., protecting and fortifying communities) in climate adaption involves balancing environment, social, and cultural considerations. Adaptation in human systems means adjusting to actual or expected climate to reduce harm or seizure of beneficial opportunities, whereas adaptation in natural systems means adjusting to severe climate impacts which may be facilitated by human intervention (IPCC, 2022a, p. 7). The concept of climate-induced migration, often terms as “climigration”, managed retreat, planned relocation, or resettlement, refers to the movement of people in response to climate change and its exacerbated hazards (Koslov, 2016). Climigration should be integrated into broader planning considerations including economic factors (e.g., revenue generation), improving quality of life, addressing issues like gentrification, enhancing education opportunities, preserving cultural heritage, maintaining public spaces, and providing adequate housing (Marchman et al., 2020).
Effective integration of retreat strategies into urban planning requires collaboration among stakeholders such as emergency management officials, housing agencies, cultural heritage experts, city lawyers, and transportation authorities (Marchman et al., 2020). Proactive planning for relocating people from at-risk areas through managed retreat or preventative resettlement is crucial as some level of climate-induced displacement is considered unavoidable (Scott & Lennon, 2020; Tubridy et al., 2020). Ecologically, retreat is beneficial as it avoids extensive new structures, allowing for habitat restoration and creating multifunctional green spaces instead (Tubridy et al., 2020). However, relocating development can negatively impact receiving communities, and retreat can have cultural and psychological effects (Tubridy et al., 2020). Feelings of loss, grief, and anxiety manifest when communities are uprooted, particularly amongst marginalized groups such as Indigenous communities whose identities are closely tied to specific places (Tubridy et al., 2020). The concept of “resilience gentrification” highlights another concern where vulnerable communities face displacement as wealthier residents seek safer, less hazard-prone areas (Tubridy et al., 2020). The retreat philosophy emphasizes working in harmony with natural processes and envisions social systems dynamically interacting with the environment. Yet, the cultural politics of retreat are complex, reflecting diverse ideals of human-environment interaction, including debates over restoring nature versus meeting social needs (Tubridy et al., 2020).
A key defence tactic is building in a way that reduces vulnerability, exposure, and inequality, considering long-term aspects such as geological factors, property devaluation, and limited government bailouts (Norman, 2023). Current adaptation strategies often focus on resistance, altering the environment to mitigate climate impacts on settlements and infrastructure. Critiques of the resistance paradigm are social, ecological, cultural, economic, and technical feasibility concerns; it may be unrealistic to continuously protect against increasingly severe climate hazards (Tubridy et al., 2020). From a social perspective, protection strategies may favour privileged groups, while retreat could offer a more equitable approach by reallocating resources strategically to areas with greater need (Tubridy et al., 2020).
Community Engagement
Community engagement through quality of life (QoL) planning involves rapid assessment and consensus building rooted in community strengths (Campbell et al., 2023). QoL planning principles include being asset-based (i.e., focusing on community strengths rather than deficits), community-centered (i.e., allowing community reflection, debate, and priority-setting to drive the planning process), holistic (i.e., encompassing economic, cultural, political, social, and environmental dimensions), pluralistic (i.e., involving diverse perspective), trusting, flexible, and strategically focused (Campbell et al., 2023). This rights-based approach empowers local communities to lead conservation efforts and enhances well-being through proactive engagement to amplify the voices of those connected to the landscapes under protection (Campbell et al., 2023). Effective implementation of QoL planning requires sustained dialogue, seasonal calendars to understand community dynamics (i.e., identify moments of scarcity and abundance related to income sources and livelihood activities) and identify key species during specific months of the year, prioritization of actions based on consensus and community needs, and asset mapping to identify strengths (Campbell et al., 2023).
Social Mobilization for Environmental Stewardship
Environmental stewardship encompasses both the philosophical and practical actions aimed at safeguarding, restoring, and sustainably utilizing natural resources for the benefit of future generations and the environment (McLeod et al., 2024). Key actors in environmental stewardship include agricultural advisors, private land managers, government institutions, and community groups, whose motivations may be related to personal values, ethics, morals, emotional attachment to place, community building, or a desire to improve the environment (Kappeller et al., 2023; McLeod et al., 2024). Stewardship activities, behaviours, and technologies aim to improve ecological outcomes such as species abundances, habitat quality, ecosystem productivity, and sustainability as well as social outcomes such as food security, improved well-being, and employment (Kapeller et al., 2023). Effective stewardship requires considering social, cultural, economic, biophysical, and governance factors to protect, conserve, restore, or sustainably use natural resources including water, soil, wildlife, forests, and vegetation (McLeod et al., 2024).
Researchers examined 89 initiatives related to environmental stewardship in the Niagara region of Canada, which revealed the diverse nature of environmental challenges including their complexity, rapidity, and severity, as well as various stressors affecting the region’s stewardship actions such as institution capacity including laws, policies, and organizational structures (Kapeller et al., 2023). Unfortunately, development pressures and economic priorities often conflict with conservation goals; therefore, community engagement is necessary to help address these issues (Kapeller et al., 2023). Additionally, Indigenous Peoples offer insights developed over millennia about the connection between communities and their environment (Norman, 2023). Barriers to participation in environmental stewardship, especially in rural areas, include awareness gaps, attitudes, trust issues, economic concerns, and uncertainties about outcomes (McLeod et al., 2024).
Community-Based Conservation and Monitoring
To ensure sustainable conservation, it is crucial to embrace the concept of planetary boundaries which identifies processes including climate change, biodiversity loss, and ozone depletion, to define safe parameters for human activity within the environment (Norman, 2023). Implementing measures to protect communities and natural habitats involves preserving and restoring ecosystems, developing defence mechanisms, establishing early warning systems, and building resilient infrastructure and agricultural practices to mitigate the impacts of natural disasters (Norman, 203).
Success factors of community-based conservation (CBC) efforts include environmental democracy (i.e., access to information, participation in decision-making, and justice in environmental matters), political stability, and accountability (Fariss et al., 2021). Furthermore, various community and project-level variables influence the outcomes of CBC initiatives, including conservation biome and target, the economy (subsistence-based, mixed, or market-based), social cohesion (e.g., population size, diversity, or social pressure), and acknowledgement of conflict or trust issues (Fariss et al., 2021). Interventions related to economic development, health, infrastructure, leadership, governance, education, technical assistance, and security are important areas of consideration for CBC initiatives (Fariss et al., 2021).
Collective action in CBC projects can be hindered by low levels of social cohesion, particularly in communities lacking familiarity, frequent interaction, shared identity, reciprocity, and trust (Fariss et al., 2021). These challenges are more common in large, diverse, rapidly changing communities that have experienced conflict, inequality, or marginalization (Fariss et al., 2021). Critics of CBC literature argue that it often refers extensively to itself, suggesting a self-reinforcing cycle of findings (Naidoo et al., 2023). Moreover, some studies appear in non-peer-reviewed conference proceedings rather than reputable ecological journals (Naidoo et al., 2023).
Community-based monitoring (CBM) involves local community members in scientific data collection, blending traditional ecological knowledge with scientific methods to study ecosystems. This cost-effective “citizen science” approach fosters community engagement, creates local jobs, empowers communities, and builds nation-to-nation relationships, as seen in Canadian initiatives such as the First Nations Guardians (Al Mamun & Natcher, 2023). Canada supports numerous CBM initiatives such as studies that focus on monitoring local harvests, long-term species, and Inuit biodiversity (Al Mamun & Natcher, 2023). Moreover, there are over 180 ongoing water-related CBM programs in Canada and 14 CBM initiatives in the Arctic involving environmental monitoring tasks through Indigenous-government collaboration (Al Mamun & Natcher, 2023). However, challenges such as competition for funding, limited access to equipment, and perceived colonial governance of CBM processes can hinder effectiveness (Al Mamun & Natcher, 2023). Critics emphasize the need for CBM to prioritize community-defined outcomes to be truly effective as opposed to criteria defined by scientists and projects managers as it relates to research goals such as data quality and cost-effectiveness (Al Mamun & Natcher, 2023). Indigenous communities seek CBM projects that include youth training in science, seeing this as an opportunity for reconciliation and enhanced science education (Al Mamun & Natcher, 2023).
Building Sustainable Futures
Urban planning has evolved from focusing solely on the organization of land use and infrastructure to emphasizing social equity, environmental protection, and community engagement (Norman, 2023). For example, a trend is to incorporate net-zero buildings and smart infrastructure to align with these broader goals (Norman, 2023). The UN SDGs underscore this shift, particularly goal 11, which advocates for sustainable, inclusive, and resilient urban environments, and goal 13, which calls for urgent climate action, promoting capacity building, and long-term adaption (Norman, 2023). The UN-Habitat principles for neighbourhood planning stress the need for well-designed, efficient, and inclusive cities (Norman, 2023). Firstly, adequate space for streets and an efficient street network is needed to support movement and access within neighbourhoods (Norman, 2023). In addition to being a well-connected city, the UN-Habitat also highlights the need for a compact city to create vibrant urban life. It is recommended to maintain a minimum density of 15,000 people per square kilometer, which translates to 150 per hectare or 61 people per acre (Norman, 2023). Mixed land involves allocating at least 40% of floor space for economic activities, which promotes local economic development (Norman, 2023). Providing a social mix of housing options in various price ranges ensures inclusivity and accommodates different income levels (Norman, 2023). Avoiding single-function blocks or neighbourhoods help create integrated and multifunctional urban areas, which enhance overall community functionality and resilience (Norman, 2023).
Collaboration between emergency management, climate scientists, urban planners and communities is crucial (Norman, 2023). Furthermore, integrating Indigenous knowledge and prioritizing nature-based solutions such as green infrastructure and biophilic cities is important (Norman, 2023). Sustainable futures require sound financial planning (e.g., adequate insurance coverage), strict building codes, infrastructure investments (e.g., flood defences and firebreaks), and public climate risk mapping (Norman, 2023). Identifying hazard-prone areas and improving infrastructure, such as building better roads and water wells, along with diversifying income sources through skill development have been shows to lower the costs of post-disaster rebuilding (Kelan, 2020). This highlights how it is necessary to think about the long-term, embracing innovation and spending wisely, to be both fiscally and morally responsible.
Conclusion
Canada should plan for natural disasters using comprehensive strategies including scenario planning to manage uncertainty and extensive community engagement to ensure resilience and adaptability are priorities in response to natural disasters. Planning challenges are increasingly complex due to environmental degradation, ongoing urbanization, and long-term impacts of climate change (Norman, 2023). The rising threats of heat-related deaths, wildfires, coastal flooding and other extreme weather events highlight the urgency of prioritizing disaster preparedness and relief efforts. Balancing philosophies related to retreating versus protecting is needed for thoughtful decisions that prioritize safety and sustainability. Social mobilization for environmental stewardship and empowering community members to actively participate in conservation efforts enhances a sense of shared responsibility that supports environmental protection. Achieving climate-resilient development requires inclusive decision-making that focuses on risk reduction, equity, and justice (IPCC 2022a, p. 2). Effective climate adaptions must incorporate risk management, facilitate community discussions, use diverse planning tools, and prioritize nature-based solutions (Norman, 2023). Canada can protect its citizens, build resilient communities, and safeguard natural landscapes by remaining committed to sustainability goals and ensuring natural disaster preparedness and response plans are proactive and robust. Enhancing resiliency against natural disasters is a moral obligation that ensures the well-being of both current and future generations.
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